Interleukin-13 promotes susceptibility to chlamydial infection of the respiratory and genital tracts

Chlamydiae are intracellular bacteria that commonly cause infections of the respiratory and genital tracts, which are major clinical problems. Infections are also linked to the aetiology of diseases such as asthma, emphysema and heart disease. The clinical management of infection is problematic and antibiotic resistance is emerging. Increased understanding of immune processes that are involved in both clearance and immunopathology of chlamydial infection is critical for the development of improved treatment strategies. Here, we show that IL-13 was produced in the lungs of mice rapidly after Chlamydia muridarum (Cmu) infection and promoted susceptibility to infection. Wild-type (WT) mice had increased disease severity, bacterial load and associated inflammation compared to IL-13 deficient (−/−) mice as early as 3 days post infection (p.i.). Intratracheal instillation of IL-13 enhanced bacterial load in IL-13−/− mice. There were no differences in early IFN-g and IL-10 expression between WT and IL-13−/− mice and depletion of CD4+ T cells did not affect infection in IL-13−/− mice. Collectively, these data demonstrate a lack of CD4+ T cell involvement and a novel role for IL-13 in innate responses to infection. We also showed that IL-13 deficiency increased macrophage uptake of Cmu in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, the depletion of IL-13 during infection of lung epithelial cells in vitro decreased the percentage of infected cells and reduced bacterial growth. Our results suggest that enhanced IL-13 responses in the airways, such as that found in asthmatics, may promote susceptibility to chlamydial lung infection. Importantly the role of IL-13 in regulating infection was not limited to the lung as we showed that IL-13 also promoted susceptibility to Cmu genital tract infection. Collectively our findings demonstrate that innate IL-13 release promotes infection that results in enhanced inflammation and have broad implications for the treatment of chlamydial infections and IL-13-associated diseases.

Interleukin-4 and interleukin-13 inhibit the expression of leukemia inhibitory factor and interleukin-11 in fibroblasts

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP)

The etiology of liver damage imparts cytokines transforming growth factor beta1 or interleukin-13 as driving forces in fibrogenesis

It is unknown whether transforming growth factor beta1 (TGF-beta1) signaling uniformly participates in fibrogenic chronic liver diseases, irrespective of the underlying origin, or if other cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-13 share in fibrogenesis (e.g., due to regulatory effects on type I pro-collagen expression). TGF-beta1 signaling events were scored in 396 liver tissue samples from patients with diverse chronic liver diseases, including hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), Schistosoma japonicum infection, and steatosis/steatohepatitis. Phospho-Smad2 staining correlated significantly with fibrotic stage in patients with HBV infection (n = 112, P < 0.001) and steatosis/steatohepatitis (n = 120, P < 0.01), but not in patients with HCV infection (n = 77, P > 0.05). In tissue with HBx protein expression, phospho-Smad2 was detectable, suggesting a functional link between viral protein expression and TGF-beta1 signaling. For IL-13, immunostaining correlated with fibrotic stage in patients with HCV infection and steatosis/steatohepatitis. IL-13 protein was more abundant in liver tissue lysates from three HCV patients compared with controls, as were IL-13 serum levels in 68 patients with chronic HCV infection compared with 20 healthy volunteers (72.87 +/- 26.38 versus 45.41 +/- 3.73, P < 0.001). Immunohistochemistry results suggest that IL-13-mediated liver fibrogenesis may take place in the absence of phospho-signal transducer and activator of transcription protein 6 signaling. In a subgroup of patients with advanced liver fibrosis (stage > or =3), neither TGF-beta nor IL-13 signaling was detectable. Conclusion: Depending on the cause of liver damage, a predominance of TGF-beta or IL-13 signaling is found. TGF-beta1 predominance is detected in HBV-related liver fibrogenesis and IL-13 predominance in chronic HCV infection. In some instances, the underlying fibrogenic mediator remains enigmatic.

Cloning and characterization of a binding subunit of the interleukin 13 receptor that is also a component of the interleukin 4 receptor.

Interleukins 4 (IL-4) and 13 (IL-13) have been found previously to share receptor components on some cells, as revealed by receptor cross-competition studies. In the present study, the cloning is described of murine NR4, a previously unrecognized receptor identified on the basis of sequence similarity with members of the hemopoietin receptor family. mRNA encoding NR4 was found in a wide range of murine cells and tissues. By using transient expression in COS-7 cells, NR4 was found to encode the IL-13 receptor alpha chain, a low-affinity receptor capable of binding IL-13 but not IL-4 or interleukins 2, -7, -9, or -15. Stable expression of the IL-13 receptor alpha chain (NR4) in CTLL-2 cells resulted in the generation of high-affinity IL-13 receptors capable of transducing a proliferative signal in response to IL-13 and, moreover, led to competitive cross-reactivity in the binding of IL-4 and IL-13. These results suggest that the IL-13 receptor alpha chain (NR4) is the primary binding subunit of the IL-13 receptor and may also be a component of IL-4 receptors.

Similarities and differences in signal transduction by interleukin 4 and interleukin 13: analysis of Janus kinase activation.

The cytokines interleukin (IL) 4 and IL-13 induce many of the same biological responses, including class switching to IgE and induction of major histocompatibility complex class II antigens and CD23 on human B cells. It has recently been shown that IL-4 induces the tyrosine phosphorylation of a 170-kDa protein, a substrate called 4PS, and of the Janus kinase (JAK) family members JAK1 and JAK3. Because IL-13 has many functional effects similar to those of IL-4, we compared the ability of IL-4 and IL-13 to activate these signaling molecules in the human multifactor-dependent cell line TF-1. In this report we demonstrate that both IL-4 and IL-13 induced the tyrosine phosphorylation of 4PS and JAK1. Interestingly, although IL-4 induced the tyrosine phosphorylation of JAK3, we did not detect JAK3 phosphorylation in response to IL-13. These data suggest that IL-4 and IL-13 signal in similar ways via the activation of JAK1 and 4PS. However, our data further indicate that there are significant differences because IL-13 does not activate JAK3.

Constitutive production of IL-13 promotes early-life Chlamydia respiratory infection and allergic airway disease

Deleterious responses to pathogens during infancy may contribute to infection and associated asthma. Chlamydia respiratory infections in early life are common causes of pneumonia and lead to reduced lung function and asthma. We investigated the role of interleukin-13 (IL-13) in promoting early-life Chlamydia respiratory infection, infection-induced airway hyperresponsiveness (AHR), and severe allergic airway disease (AAD). Infected infant Il13−/− mice had reduced infection, inflammation, and mucus-secreting cell hyperplasia. Surprisingly, infection of wild-type (WT) mice did not increase IL-13 production but reduced IL-13Rα2 decoy receptor levels compared with sham-inoculated controls. Infection of WT but not Il13−/− mice induced persistent AHR. Infection and associated pathology were restored in infected Il13−/− mice by reconstitution with IL-13. Stat6−/− mice were also largely protected. Neutralization of IL-13 during infection prevented subsequent infection-induced severe AAD. Thus, early-life Chlamydia respiratory infection reduces IL-13Rα2 production, which may enhance the effects of constitutive IL-13 and promote more severe infection, persistent AHR, and AAD.

IL-4 and IL-13 inhibit IL-1β and TNF-α induced kinin B 1 and B2 receptors through a STAT6-dependent mechanism

Background and Purpose Bone resorption induced by interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and tumour necrosis factor (TNF-α) is synergistically potentiated by kinins, partially due to enhanced kinin receptor expression. Inflammation-induced bone resorption can be impaired by IL-4 and IL-13. The aim was to investigate if expression of B1 and B2 kinin receptors can be affected by IL-4 and IL-13. Experimental Approach We examined effects in a human osteoblastic cell line (MG-63), primary human gingival fibroblasts and mouse bones by IL-4 and IL-13 on mRNA and protein expression of the B1 and B2 kinin receptors. We also examined the role of STAT6 by RNA interference and using Stat6-/- mice. Key Results IL-4 and IL-13 decreased the mRNA expression of B1 and B2 kinin receptors induced by either IL-1β or TNF-α in MG-63 cells, intact mouse calvarial bones or primary human gingival fibroblasts. The burst of intracellular calcium induced by either bradykinin (B2 agonist) or des-Arg10-Lys-bradykinin (B1 agonist) in gingival fibroblasts pretreated with IL-1β was impaired by IL-4. Similarly, the increased binding of B1 and B2 ligands induced by IL-1β was decreased by IL-4. In calvarial bones from Stat6-deficient mice, and in fibroblasts in which STAT6 was knocked down by siRNA, the effect of IL-4 was decreased. Conclusions and Implications These data show, for the first time, that IL-4 and IL-13 decrease kinin receptors in a STAT6-dependent mechanism, which can be one important mechanism by which these cytokines exert their anti-inflammatory effects and impair bone resorption. © 2013 The Authors. British Journal of Pharmacology © 2013 The British Pharmacological Society.

The role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of non-small cell lung cancer

The link between chronic immune activation and tumorigenesis is well established. Compelling evidence has accumulated that histologic assessment of infiltration patterns of different host immune response components in non-small cell lung cancer specimens helps identify different prognostic patient subgroups. This review provides an overview of recent insights gained in the understanding of the role played by chronic inflammation in lung carcinogenesis. The usefulness of quantification of different populations of lymphocytes, natural killer cells, macrophages, and mast cells within the tumor microenvironment in non-small cell lung cancer is also discussed. In particular, the importance of assessment of inflammatory cell microlocalization within both the tumor islet and surrounding stromal components is emphasized. Copyright © 2010 by the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer.

Adaptive immunity to rhinoviruses: Sex and age matter

Background: Rhinoviruses (RV) are key triggers in acute asthma exacerbations. Previous studies suggest that men suffer from infectious diseases more frequently and with greater severity than women. Additionally, the immune response to most infections and vaccinations decreases with age. Most immune function studies do not account for such differences, therefore the aim of this study was to determine if the immune response to rhinovirus varies with sex or age. Methods: Blood mononuclear cells were isolated from 63 healthy individuals and grouped by sex and age (≤50 years old and ≥52 years old). Cells were cultured with rhinovirus 16 at a multiplicity of infection of 1. The chemokine IP-10 was measured at 24 h as an index of innate immunity while IFNγ and IL-13 were measured at 5 days as an index of adaptive immunity. Results: Rhinovirus induced IFNγ and IL-13 was significantly higher in ≤50 year old women than in age matched men (p < 0.02 and p < 0.05) and ≥52 year old women (p < 0.02 and p > 0.005). There was no sex or age based difference in rhinovirus induced IP-10 expression. Both IFNγ and IL-13 were negatively correlated with age in women but not in men. Conclusions: This study suggests that pre-menopausal women have a stronger adaptive immune response to rhinovirus infection than men and older people, though the mechanisms responsible for these differences remain to be determined. Our findings highlight the importance of gender and age balance in clinical studies and in the development of new treatments and vaccines.

Impact of chemotherapy on cancer-related fatigue and cytokines in 1312 patients: A systematic review of quantitative studies

Purpose of review: Cancer-related fatigue (CRF) is the most common psychosomatic distress experienced by cancer patients before, during and after chemotherapy. Its impact on functional status and Health Related Quality of Life is a great concern among patients, healthcare professionals and researchers. The primary objective of this systematic review is to determine whether the different chemotherapies affect the association of CRF with individual pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. The PRISMA statement guideline has been followed to systematically search and screen article from PubMed and Embase. Recent findings: This review has examined 14 studies which included a total of 1312 patients. These studies assayed 20 different kinds of cytokines. The cytokines interleukin-6, interleukin-1RA, TGF-[beta] and sTNF-R2 were associated with CRF in patients receiving anthracycline-based chemotherapy. However, only interleukin-13 was identified in the taxane-based chemotherapy. Similarly, different sets of cytokines were linked with CRF in patients with chemotherapy regimens containing platinum, cyclophosphamides, topotecan or bleomycin. Summary: This review has identified that cytokines are differentially linked with CRF according to the various types of chemotherapy regimens.

Óleo de peixe (fonte de ácidos graxos n-3) atenua inflamação das vias aéreas e hiper-reatividade pulmonar induzida por alérgeno em camundongos

O óleo de peixe é rico em ácidos graxos poli-insaturados (AGPI) n-3 e vem sendo apontado como anti-inflamatório associado à melhora de diversas doenças de natureza inflamatória. No presente estudo, objetivou-se avaliar a influência do óleo de peixe sobre a inflamação pulmonar e hiper-reatividade em camundongos ativamente sensibilizados desafiados com ovoalbumina (OVA). Camundongos A/J machos foram alimentados com dieta standard-chow (SC) ou dieta rica em óleo de peixe (Px) durante 8 semanas. Após 4 semanas do início da dieta, cada grupo foi subdividido aleatoriamente para ser desafiado com salina (SC-SAL e PX-SAL) ou ovoalbumina (SC-OVA e PX-OVA). A função pulmonar (resistência e elastância) foi avaliada através de pletismografia invasiva, na condição de aerolização ou não com metacolina 24 horas após o último desafio antigênico. Foi realizado lavado broncoalveolar (LBA) para contagem de leucócitos e quantificação de eotaxina-2. A deposição de muco e de matriz peribronquiolar e o infiltrado de eosinófilos foram quantificados no tecido pulmonar. Foram avaliados interleucina (IL)-13 através de imunohistoquímica e NFκB, GATA-3 e PPARγ, por western-blotting. O desafio com OVA resultou em aumento da infiltração de eosinófilos, elevada produção de citocinas inflamatórias, remodelamento pulmonar, produção de muco e hiper-reatividade das vias aéreas. Detectou-se aumento na expressão dos fatores de transcrição NFκB e GATA-3 nos camundongos do grupo sensibilizado e desafiado com OVA em comparação aos controles. Todas essas alterações foram atenuadas nos camundongos que receberam dieta com óleo de peixe. Expressão elevada de PPARγ foi detectada nos pulmões dos camundongos dos grupos alimentados com óleo de peixe. Em conclusão, nossos resultados mostram que a ingestão de óleo de peixe atenuou as características clássicas do quadro asmático através da modulação da síntese de mediadores inflamatórios, via regulação negativa de NFκB e GATA-3 e regulação positiva de PPARγ. O óleo de peixe parece ser uma terapia alternativa para o controle e tratamento da asma.

Efeito do tratamento com a proteína quimérica IL-13PE sobre a inflamação pulmonar induzida por partículas de sílica em camundongos

A interleucina 13 (IL-13) tem sido apontada como um dos principais mediadores em processos de ativação de fibroblastos e indução de fibrose pulmonar, sendo, portanto, considerada como um alvo terapêutico importante. A silicose é uma doença pulmonar inflamatória crônica, de caráter ocupacional, caracterizada por uma intensa resposta fibrótica e granulomatosa. Com base nestas observações, tivemos por objetivo investigar o potencial efeito da administração da imunotoxina IL-13-PE38QQR (IL-13PE) sobre o modelo de silicose em camundongos. Camundongos Swiss-Webster foram anestesiados e instilados intranasalmente com partículas de sílica (10 mg), sendo a administração da IL-13PE (200ng/dia) realizada por via intranasal, uma vez ao dia em dias alternados no período entre 21 a 27 dias após a provocação. Analisamos o componente inflamatório, a deposição de colágeno e a área de granuloma avaliados através de técnicas clássicas de histologia, incluindo coloração com H&E e Picrus-sirius, ou ainda a quantificação do conteúdo de colágeno por Sircol. Os componentes de matriz extracelular fibronectina e laminina foram avaliados através de imunohistoquímica. Citocinas e quimiocinas foram quantificadas por sistema de ELISA. As medidas de função pulmonar e resposta de hiperreatividade foram realizadas através do sistema de pletismografia de corpo inteiro invasiva. Verificamos que o tratamento curativo com a IL-13PE inibiu de forma acentuada o comprometimento da função pulmonar nos camundongos silicóticos, incluindo tanto aumento da resistência como da elastância, assim como a resposta de hiperratividade das vias aéreas ao agente broncoconstrictor metacolina. De forma coerente, os animais silicóticos quando submetidos ao tratamento com IL-13PE apresentaram marcada redução do componente inflamatório pulmonar e da resposta fibrótica, atestado pela diminuição na produção de colágeno, laminina e fibronectina e redução importante da área de granuloma. De forma semelhante, as citocinas (TNF-α e TGF-) e quimiocinas (MIP-1α, MIP-2, TARC, IP-10, MDC) detectadas em quantidade aumentada no pulmão de animais silicóticos foram reduzidas pelo tratamento com a IL-13PE. Em conclusão, nossos resultados mostram que a administração curativa da IL-13PE foi capaz de inibir os componentes inflamatórios e fibróticos da fase crônica do quadro silicótico em camundongos, o que se refletiu de forma clara na melhora da função pulmonar. Em conjunto, nossos achados indicam que a utilização da IL13PE parece constituir uma abordagem terapêutica extremamente promissora para aplicação em casos de doenças crônicas de natureza fibrótica como a silicose.

Association of early growth response-1 gene polymorphisms with total IgE and atopy in asthmatic children

Early growth response-1 (Egr-1) is expressed in human airways and found to modulate tumor necrosis factor, immunoglobulin E (IgE), airway responsiveness, and interleukin-13-induced inflammation in mice. We investigated the effects of Chinese-tagging singl

Optimal kinetics for quantification of antigen-induced cytokines in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells by real-time PCR and by ELISA.

Real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has recently been described as a new tool to measure and accurately quantify mRNA levels. In this study, we have applied this technique to evaluate cytokine mRNA synthesis induced by antigenic stimulation with purified protein derivative (PPD) or heparin-binding haemagglutinin (HBHA) in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected individuals. Whereas PPD and HBHA optimally induced IL-2 mRNA after respectively 8 and 16 to 24 h of in vitro stimulation, longer in vitro stimulation times were necessary for optimal induction of interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) mRNA, respectively 16 to 24 h for PPD and 24 to 96 h for HBHA. IL-13 mRNA was optimally induced by in vitro stimulation after 16-48 h for PPD and after 48 to 96 h for HBHA. Comparison of antigen-induced Th1 and Th2 cytokines appears, therefore, valuable only if both cytokine types are analysed at their optimal time point of production, which, for a given cytokine, may differ for each antigen tested. Results obtained by real-time PCR for IFN-gamma and IL-13 mRNA correlated well with those obtained by measuring the cytokine concentrations in cell culture supernatants, provided they were high enough to be detected. We conclude that real-time PCR can be successfully applied to the quantification of antigen-induced cytokine mRNA and to the evaluation of the Th1/Th2 balance, only if the kinetics of cytokine mRNA appearance are taken into account and evaluated for each cytokine measured and each antigen analysed.

Modulation of the infant immune responses by the first pertussis vaccine administrations.

Many efforts are currently made to prepare combined vaccines against most infectious pathogens, that may be administered early in life to protect infants against infectious diseases as early as possible. However, little is known about the general immune modulation induced by early vaccination. Here, we have analyzed the cytokine secretion profiles of two groups of 6-month-old infants having received as primary immunization either a whole-cell (Pw) or an acellular (Pa) pertussis vaccine in a tetravalent formulation of pertussis-tetanus-diphtheria-poliomyelitis vaccines. Both groups of infants secreted IFN-gamma in response to the Bordetella pertussis antigens filamentous haemagglutinin and pertussis toxin, and this response was correlated with antigen-specific IL-12p70 secretion, indicating that both pertussis vaccines induced Th1 cytokines. However, Pa recipients also developed a strong Th2-type cytokine response to the B. pertussis antigens, as noted previously. In addition, they induced Th2-type cytokines to the co-administrated antigen tetanus toxoïd, as well as to the food antigen beta-lactoglobulin. Furthermore, the general cytokine profile of the Pa recipients was strongly Th2-skewed at 6 months, as indicated by the cytokines induced by the mitogen phytohaemagglutinin. These data demonstrate that the cytokine profile of 6-month-old infants is influenced by the type of formulation of the pertussis vaccine they received at 2, 3 and 4 months of life. Large prospective studies would be warranted to evaluate the possible long-term consequences of this early modulation of the cytokine responses in infants.